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The American Medical Writers Association speaks to the topic as follows:〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=AMWA Ethics FAQ )〕 : "Ghost authoring" refers to making substantial contributions without being identified as an author. "Guest authoring" refers to being named as an author without having made substantial contributions. "Ghostwriting" refers to assisting in presenting the author's work without being acknowledged. The term "ghostwriting" is often used to encompass all three of these practices. With medical ghostwriting, professional writers and other parties are paid — commonly (but by no means always) by pharmaceuticals and medical devices manufacturers — to produce manuscripts for conference presentations, scientific publications, explicitly promotional distributions, patient education materials, continuing professional education activities' contents, and other communications. In the pharmaceuticals and medical devices industries, physicians and other scientists are frequently〔 permitted or paid to attach their names to these manuscripts, which are then promulgated at meetings, distributed to patients and caregivers, presented as marketing instruments, or published in textbooks and medical journals. These scientists or physicians may have little involvement in the research or the writing process. The rules for authorship and contribution of the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE, informally known as "the Vancouver Group" from the locale of the group's first meeting, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada) are a single, universally-respected set of guidelines for describing authorship of and contribution to professional medical publications. The document "International Committee of Medical Journal Editors: Defining the Role of Authors and Contributors"〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=ICMJE - Recommendations - Defining the Role of Authors and Contributors )〕 is considered the definitive statement of ethical requirements for how authorship in medical journal articles (the prime forum for medical professional publication) and the degree to which a given writer is deemed to have contributed to the content of a medical journal article are determined. Compliance with the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors' Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=ICMJE - Recommendations )〕 is voluntary. A list of medical journals which have stated that they follow the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=ICMJE - Journals Following the ICMJE Recommendations )〕 is maintained by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. How closely individual medical journals and authors of medical journal articles comply with ICMJE guidelines is a largely self-policed matter. The ICMJE document "Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals: Publishing and Editorial Issues Related to Publication in Biomedical Journals: Corrections, Retractions and "Expressions of Concern"〔http://www.icmje.org/publishing_2corrections.html〕 is the section of the ICMJE Uniform Requirements laying out guidelines for how potential or actual scientific error and scientific fraud ought to be dealt with. It refers readers to the relevant guidelines from the Committee for Publication Ethics (COPE)〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Guidelines )〕 - specifically COPE's flowcharts outlining a systematic approach toward scientific error and possible fraud.〔http://publicationethics.org/files/All%20Flowcharts%20English%2017%20July%202012.pdf〕 ==Criticism== Medical ghostwriting has been criticized by a variety of professional organizations representing the drug industry, publishers, and medical societies, and it may violate American laws prohibiting off-label promotion by drug manufacturers as well as anti-kickback provisions within the statutes governing Medicare. Recently, it has attracted scrutiny from the lay press lawmakers〔House of Commons Health Committee (2005) The influence of the pharmaceutical industry. London: The Stationery Office Limited.〕 the Institute of Medicine,〔(【引用サイトリンク】Project On Government Oversight">title= Frequently Asked Questions about Medical Ghostwriting )〕 and the National Institutes of Health.〔Project On Government Oversight, "Frequently Asked Questions about Medical Ghostwriting", June 28, 2011〕 as well. It is permitted at some institutions, including the University of Washington School of Medicine,〔Boseley, ''The Guardian'', February 7, 1992〕〔Giombetti, 1992, "UW's Friendly Corporate Ghostwriter", Eat the State Vol. 6, No. 19〕 while it is prohibited and considered a particularly pernicious form of plagiarism at others, such as Tufts University School of Medicine and the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine.〔 Scandals involving prominent physicians researchers have been reported at over a dozen universities in the United States, however, there have been no reports of any professors being disciplined.〔 Professor Trudo Lemmens of the University of Toronto School of Law argues that ghostwritten papers help protect companies when they are sued in court.〔Thacker, Paul, "How Scientific Literature Has Become Part of Big Pharma's Marketing Machine and How Being Nice Hurts Canada: 5 Questions with Ghostwriting Expert Trudo Lemmens", Project On Government Oversight, Jun 22, 2011〕 Professional medical writers can write papers without being listed as authors of the paper and without being considered ghostwriters, provided their role is acknowledged. The European Medical Writers Association have published guidelines which aim to ensure professional medical writers carry out this role in an ethical and responsible manner. The use of properly acknowledged medical writers is accepted as legitimate by organisations such as the World Association of Medical Editors〔 and the British Medical Journal.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Resources for authors )〕 Moreover, professional medical writers' expertise in presenting scientific data may be of benefit in producing better quality papers. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「medical ghostwriter」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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